In a world dominated by patriarchal societies, women have perpetually been denied the expression of their authentic creative voice in the name of propriety. Certain groups of women, however, refused to confirm to societal norms and through their imaginary literary works manifested inner worlds that would have been entirely forbidden to their monotonous outward existence.
One of these groups of women were those who, under the strict class structure of Victorian Britain, fell under the moniker of ‘gentlewomen.’ Life was tedious for the majority of women of this era for varying reasons, and although this upper-class group were lucky enough not to have to endure the physical privations and monotony of their working-class counterparts, their existence remained one of repression and conformity.
Those born into the wealthier echelons were expected to spend their time in stereotypically ‘feminine’ leisurely pursuits, such as watercolour painting, needlework or playing the piano. Any pastime that was considered intellectual was forbidden; reading was an acceptable form of light entertainment, but even this seemingly innocent activity had its strictures.
A letter can be found at the Norfolk Record Office (NEV 10_144_1), penned in 1875 by a well-meaning mother to her young daughter regarding the book ‘Jane Eyre’ by Charlotte Bronte. 28 years after Bronte published the novel under a male pseudonym, it seems that the act of reading the text was considered almost as rebellious as writing the text itself:
‘My dear Molly,
I fear I must say ‘no’ to Jane Eyre. There are sensations in it of which I thoroughly disapprove, which when I read it to you, I left out. You could come upon them, the knowledge of which is never quite wiped out of the heart. Little maidens should keep themselves pure in heart and mind.’
Earlier women authors, such as the French courtesans of the 17th century, were prepared to step outside of the boundaries of convention in order to let their imaginations run wild, regardless of society. Unlike the more subtly subversive Victorian women writers, these brave storytellers often risked their reputations with scandalous behaviour at court; a lifestyle mirrored in their literary work. Stories were often created to enliven dull hours spent in upper class salons; fairytales became extremely popular, with the term itself – ‘conte de fées’ – being invented by prominent courtesan the Countess d’Aulnoy (1650/1-1705).
The indomitable Charlotte-Rose de Caumont de la Force (1654-1724) wrote many stories after being banished to a convent for less than ‘ladylike’ behaviour at the court of Louis XIV. Having fallen from grace, de la Force lost her position of maid-of-honour on the charge of composing ‘satirical verses.’ Triumphantly, she went on to write ‘Persinette’, the original version of what we know today as ‘Rapunzel’. We can witness both in the classic fairytales and the gothic works of fiction created by later women writers, a style that differs from male authors of the same periods who were attempting their own creations of horror. Whilst courtesans developed psychologically disturbing fairytales, The Brothers Grimm later went on to adapt these storylines alongside traditional folktales, melding them into something altogether different, rather than creating their own original work.
Authors such as Mary Shelley (1797-1851) the creator of ‘Frankenstein’ specialised in the development of a thriller-like, slow burn of creeping terror through her storytelling techniques – this is in sharp contrast to the ‘blood and gore’ approach of male contemporaries, such as the imagery used in Bram Stoker’s ‘Dracula’. The term ‘gentlewomen’ becomes highly inappropriate for these authors who were not only masters of their craft, but masters of disguise; outwardly they remained pure, feminine and submissive, whilst inwardly they unleashed through their writing an inner life as wild, psychotic and dark as they pleased.
Peter Haining, editor of the book ‘A Circle of Witches: An Anthology of Victorian Witchcraft Stories’ (p.71) describes the favoured subjects of the women authors who contribute to this collection of short stories:
‘…witchcraft was by far the favourite occult topic of gentlewomen.’
Other notable tropes included disembodied hands and eyes, and apparitions manifesting by the bedside; a clear echo of the era’s obsession with spiritualism and all things supernatural. In her short ghost story ‘The Open Door,’ author Mrs. Margaret Oliphant’s narrator describes the possible haunting of her new house (p.47):
‘If we had heard of it to start with, it is possible that all the family would have considered the possession of a ghost a distinct advantage. It is the fashion of the times.’
In another story, ‘Eyes of Terror,’ penned by Mrs. L. T. Meade, somewhat of a social commentary arises. The author’s skilful storytelling quietly demonstrates her rebellion against the restraints of her gender, whilst also weaving in the psychological tension aforementioned.
The tale portrays a belligerent male, attempting to force a young heiress into marriage by gaslighting her into thinking she is insane, as exemplified by the pupils of her eyes, which he claims ‘point to a disordered brain’ (p.213).
Meade embraces the use of disembodiment, creating a tense atmosphere that stirs a strong emotional response from the reader, deftly utilising a range of gothic fiction devices in just a few lines. A brooding setting, dark lighting, the natural world and a contrasting supernatural being underpin the fear of madness that runs throughout the story (p.220):
‘Presently I went to the window and looked out into the beautiful night. The moonlight was…causing black shadows under the trees. Suddenly I uttered a scream and fell back, too startled to keep my self-control. For gazing at me fixedly out of the deep mass of foliage were two very bright, luminous eyes, full of a strange and terrifying gleam.’
The author successfully utilises the art of writing to quietly protest against the strictures that women authors faced throughout their lives. By creating tales that were wild – and in some cases scandalous – they bravely created a fictional world where both they and their readers could experience a freedom of thought and imagination that simply would not, and could not be tamed.
The courage of these women cannot be underestimated when we consider that rebelling against the patriarchy went hand-in-hand with the risk of imprisonment, banishment and the ultimate fate of impoverishment, destitution and even death.
Today the majority of us respect and embrace the concept of freedom of thought, and actively encourage creative expression. Let us continue to push boundaries through the medium of creativity, our craft and its innate rebellious spirit, honouring those brave women writers who went before us, paving the way with wild imagination and an indomitable spirit.
References:
‘The Gentlewomen of Evil: An Anthology of Rare Supernatural Stories from the pens of Victorian Ladies,’ Peter Haining (1967)
‘A Circle of Witches: An Anthology of Victorian Witchcraft Stories,’ Peter Haining (1971)
Early Women Writers of Fairy Tales | The Bone Lantern
Published in ‘Witchology,’ Summer 2025
Lucy Spirit ~ Portfolio 
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